energy comes in two forms: (1) Kinetic Energy (KE), the energy of speed; (2) Potential Energy (PE), the stored energy of position.

Aircraft motion (KE) is described by its velocity (airspeed). Aircraft position (PE) is described by its height (altitude). Both KE and PE are directly proportional to the object’s mass. KE is directly proportional to the square of the object’s velocity (airspeed). PE is directly proportional to the object’s height (altitude). The formulas below summarize these energy relationships:

KE = ½ × m × v²

PE = m × g × h (g = gravity field strength)

We sometimes use the terms “power” and “thrust” interchangeably when discussing climb performance. This erroneously implies the terms are synonymous. It is important to distinguish between these terms. Thrust is a force or pressure exerted on an object. Thrust is measured in pounds (lb) or newtons (N). Power, however, is a measurement of the rate of performing work or transferring energy (KE and PE). Power is typically measured in horsepower (hp) or kilowatts (kw). We can think of power as the motion (KE and PE) a force (thrust) creates when exerted on an object over a period of time.

Positive climb performance occurs when an aircraft gains PE by increasing altitude. Two basic factors, or a combination of the two factors, contribute to positive climb performance in most aircraft:

As an example of factor 1 above, an aircraft with an engine capable of producing 200 horsepower (at a given altitude) is using only 130 horsepower to maintain level flight at that altitude. This leaves 70 horsepower available to climb. The pilot holds airspeed constant and increases power to perform the climb.

As an example of factor 2, an aircraft is flying level at 120 knots. The pilot leaves the engine power setting constant but applies other control inputs to perform a climb. The climb, sometimes called a zoom climb, converts the airspeed (KE) to altitude (PE); the airspeed decreases to something less than 120 knots as the altitude increases.

There are two primary reasons to evaluate climb performance. First, aircraft must climb over obstacles to avoid hitting them. Second, climbing to higher altitudes can provide better weather, fuel economy, and other benefits. Maximum Angle of Climb (AOC), obtained at VX, may provide climb performance to ensure an aircraft will clear obstacles. Maximum Rate of Climb (ROC), obtained at VY, provides climb performance to achieve the greatest altitude gain over time. Maximum ROC may not be sufficient to avoid obstacles in some situations, while maximum AOC may be sufficient to avoid the same obstacles. [Figure 11-7]

AOC is a comparison of altitude gained relative to distance traveled. AOC is the inclination (angle) of the flight path. For maximum AOC performance, a pilot flies the aircraft at VX

so as to achieve maximum altitude increase with minimum horizontal travel over the ground. A good use of maximum AOC is when taking off from a short airfield surrounded by high obstacles, such as trees or power lines. The objective is to gain sufficient altitude to clear the obstacle while traveling the least horizontal distance over the surface.

One method to climb (have positive AOC performance) is to have excess thrust available. Essentially, the greater the force that pushes the aircraft upward, the steeper it can climb. Maximum AOC occurs at the airspeed and angle of attack (AOA) combination which allows the maximum excess thrust. The airspeed and AOA combination where excess thrust exists varies amongst aircraft types. As an example,

airplanes as to where maximum excess thrust (for maximum AOC) occurs. In a jet, maximum excess thrust normally occurs at the airspeed where the thrust required is at a minimum (approximately L/DMAX ). In a propeller airplane, maximum excess thrust normally occurs at an airspeed below L/DMAX and frequently just above stall speed.

ROC is a comparison of altitude gained relative to the time needed to reach that altitude. ROC is simply the vertical component of the aircraft’s flight path velocity vector. For maximum ROC performance, a pilot flies the aircraft at VY so as to achieve a maximum gain in altitude over a given period of time.

Maximum ROC expedites a climb to an assigned altitude. This gains the greatest vertical distance over a period of time. For example, in a maximum AOC profile, a certain aircraft takes 30 seconds to reach 1,000 feet AGL, but covers only 3,000 feet over the ground. By comparison, using its maximum ROC profile, the same aircraft climbs