Random practice mixes up the skills to be acquired throughout the practice session. This type of practice leads to better retention because by performing a series of separate skills in a random order, the learner starts to recognize the similarities and differences of each skill which makes it more meaningful. The learner also is able to store the skill more effectively in the long-term memory. Learners get to retrieve steps and parameters from long-term memory which helps learners recognize patterns between tasks.

Blocked practice performance scores well during the actual practice when compared to random practice performance. But on a test given the next day, random practice does better than blocked practice. For long-term retention of aviation knowledge, the instructor who uses well-written SBT which encourages random practice and leads to better retention of information.

How much practice is needed to attain proficiency? In planning for learner skill acquisition, a primary consideration is the length of time devoted to practice. A beginning learner reaches a point where additional practice is not only unproductive, but may even be harmful. When this point is reached, errors increase, and motivation declines. As a learner gains experience, longer periods of practice are profitable.

Another consideration is the problem of whether to divide the practice period. Perhaps even the related instruction should be broken down into segments, or it may be advantageous to plan one continuous, integrated sequence. The answer depends on the nature of the skill. Some skills are composed of closely related steps, each dependent on the preceding one. Learning to pack a parachute is a good example. Other skills are composed of related subgroups of skills. Learning to overhaul an aircraft engine is a good example.

One way to structure practice to get the most from learning is to expose the learner to the same knowledge and skill in different contexts. For example, after practicing the short field landing in the aircraft, return to the classroom and rehearse the procedure using the toy airplane. Then, watch a video that shows a variety of back-to-back landings and have the learner describe what went right and what went wrong. Each of these methods gives the learner the chance practice the maneuver while adding new perceptions and insights to his or her skill base.

In the initial stages of skill acquisition, practical suggestions are more valuable to the learner than a grade. Early evaluation is usually teacher oriented. It provides a check on teaching effectiveness, can be used to predict learner outcomes, and can help the teacher locate special problem areas. The observations on which the evaluations are based also can identify the learner’s strengths and weaknesses, a prerequisite for making constructive criticism. For additional information, refer to Chapter 6, Assessment.

As a learner practices a skill, it is important he or she perform the skill correctly and that the skill being practiced is one that needs to be developed to maturity. An instructor ensures a skill is practiced correctly by monitoring the practice and providing feedback about the skill development. The learner profits by having someone watch the performance and provide constructive criticism to help eliminate errors. Providing compliments on aspects of the skill that were performed correctly help keep the evaluation positive. Allowing the learner to critique his or her performance enhances learner-centered training.

Instructors should note learners can develop deviations from the intended method of performance at any stage of skill acquisition.

Overlearning is the continued study of a skill after initial proficiency has been achieved. Practice proceeds beyond the point at which the act can be performed with the required degree of excellence. The phenomenon of overlearning sometimes occurs when knowledge used frequently begins to take on the properties of a skill. For example, a learner’s everyday knowledge about weight and balance concepts tends to center on the routine use of familiar charts found in the aircraft. Eventually, the learner’s performance is characterized less by an understanding of weight and balance concepts, and more by an automatic process in which rows and columns of familiar charts give desired numbers.

In some cases, the overlearning of knowledge has the advantage of making application of knowledge more streamlined and efficient. In other cases, the development of automated routines can lead to problems. For example, a verbal checklist procedure becomes so automatic that a streamlined recitation of checklist items becomes decoupled from the thoughts and actions the checklist items are intended to trigger. In this case, the pilot or mechanic may not stop to consider each item.

The development of automated skills can impede further learning or lead to forgetting general knowledge. In one study, learner pilots and flight instructors were asked to solve weight and balance problems using charts taken from two different aircraft: (1) a small single-engine airplane they flew on a daily basis and (2) a different small single-engine airplane in which they had no experience. Test scores were surprisingly low when the charts for the unfamiliar airplane were used, and this was as true for instructors as it was for learners. The results suggest pilots had focused on developing streamlined, automatic procedures tuned to the details of the familiar aircraft charts while their ability to use their understanding of overall weight and balance concepts seemed to have diminished.

Instructors should remain aware of skills learners develop as a result of overlearning and help make sure that their actions continue to be accompanied by a use of their underlying knowledge. As a learner progresses, the key difference between knowledge and skill becomes apparent. Memorized facts about a topic that once supported the beginner’s awkward performance of the skill tend to develop into deeper understanding. Skill acquisition involves learning many individual steps that eventually meld into a seemingly continuous automated process, at which point the learner has entered the procedural knowledge realm, and may no longer be consciously aware of the individual steps.

The final and critical question is “Can the learner use the information received?” It is not uncommon to find that learners devote weeks and months in school learning new abilities, and then fail to apply these abilities on the job. To solve this problem, two conditions need to be present. First, the learner needs to understand the skill so well that it becomes easy, even habitual. Second, the learner should be able to recognize the types of situations where it is appropriate to use the skill. This second condition involves the question of transfer of learning, which is discussed later in this chapter.

To help learners acquire skills, the instructor should: