Chapter 1
Risk Management and Single-Pilot Resource Management
- Apply the steps in sequence—each step is a building block for the next and should be completed before proceeding to the next. If a hazard identification step is interrupted to focus on the control of a particular hazard, more important hazards may be overlooked. Until all hazards are identified, the remainder of the process is not effective.
- Maintain a balance in the process—all steps are important. Allocate the time and resources to perform all.
- Apply the process in a cycle—the “supervise and review” step should include a brand-new look at the operation being analyzed to see whether new hazards can be identified.
- Involve people in the process—ensure that risk controls are mission supportive, and the people who do the work see them as positive actions. The people who are exposed to risks usually know best what works and what does not.
Identifying Risk
Hazards and their associated risks can either be obvious or harder to detect. You should methodically identify and classify risks to a proposed or ongoing flight by maintaining constant situational awareness. To assist this process, it is helpful to apply the simple acronym PAVE to your risk management process. The acronym stands for Pilot, Aircraft, Environment, External pressures. Use the following guidelines and questions to identify risk using the PAVE acronym.
The Pave Checklist
By incorporating the PAVE checklist into all stages of flight planning, the pilot divides the risks of flight into four categories: Pilot in command (PIC), Aircraft, enVironment, and External pressures (PAVE), which form part of a pilot’s decision-making process.
With the PAVE checklist, pilots have a simple way to remember each category to examine for risk prior to each flight. Once a pilot identifies the risks of a flight, he or she needs to decide whether the risk or combination of risks can be managed safely and successfully. If not, the flight should be cancelled. If the pilot decides to continue with the flight, he or she should develop strategies to mitigate the risks. One way a pilot can control the risks is to set personal minimums for items in each risk category. These are limits unique to that individual pilot’s current level of experience and proficiency.
For example, the aircraft may have a maximum crosswind component of 15 knots listed in the aircraft flight manual (AFM), and the pilot has experience with 10 knots of direct crosswind. It could be unsafe to exceed a 10 knot-crosswind component without additional training. Therefore, the 10 knots crosswind experience level should be that pilot’s personal limitation until additional training with a flight instructor provides the pilot with additional experience for flying in crosswinds that exceed 10 knots.
One of the most important concepts that safe pilots understand is the difference between what is “legal” in terms of the regulations, and what is “smart” or “safe” in terms of pilot experience and proficiency.
P = Pilot in Command (PIC) The pilot is one of the risk factors in a flight. When considering that risk, a pilot may ask, “Am I ready for this trip?” in terms of experience, currency, and physical and emotional condition. The IMSAFE checklist (described later in this chapter) combined with proficiency, recency, and currency helps provide the answer.
A = Aircraft What limitations will the aircraft impose upon the trip? Ask the following questions:
- Is this the right aircraft for the flight?
- Am I familiar with and current in this aircraft? Aircraft performance figures and the AFM are based on a brand-new aircraft flown by a professional test pilot. Keep that in mind while assessing personal and aircraft performance.
- Is this aircraft equipped for the flight? Instruments? Lights? Navigation and communication equipment adequate?
- Can this aircraft use the runways available for the trip with an adequate margin of safety under the conditions to be flown?
- Can this aircraft carry the planned load?
- Can this aircraft operate at the altitudes needed for the trip?
- Does this aircraft have sufficient fuel capacity, with reserves, for trip legs planned?
- Does the fuel quantity delivered match the fuel quantity ordered?
V = EnVironment
Weather is a major environmental consideration. Earlier it was suggested pilots set their own personal minimums, especially when it comes to weather. As pilots evaluate the weather for a particular flight, they should consider the following:
- What are the current ceiling and visibility? In mountainous terrain, consider having higher minimums for ceiling and visibility, particularly if the terrain is unfamiliar.
- Consider the possibility that the weather may be different than forecast. Have alternative plans and be ready and willing to divert should an unexpected change occur.
- Consider the winds at the airports being used and the strength of the crosswind component.
- If flying in mountainous terrain, consider whether there are strong winds aloft. Strong winds in mountainous terrain can cause severe turbulence and downdrafts and can be very hazardous for aircraft even when there is no other significant weather.
- Are there any thunderstorms present or forecast?
- If there are clouds, is there any icing, current or forecast? What is the temperature-dew point spread and the current temperature at altitude? Can descent be made safely all along the route?
- If icing conditions are encountered, is the pilot experienced at operating the aircraft’s deicing or anti-icing equipment? Is this equipment in good condition and functional? For what icing conditions is the aircraft rated, if any?
Evaluation of terrain is another important component of analyzing the flight environment. To avoid terrain and obstacles, especially at night or in low visibility, determine safe altitudes in advance by using the altitudes shown on VFR and IFR charts during preflight planning. Use maximum elevation figures (MEFs) and other easily obtainable data to minimize chances of an inflight collision with terrain or obstacles.
Airport considerations include:
- What lights are available at the destination and alternate airports? VASI/PAPI or ILS glideslope guidance? Is the terminal airport equipped with them? Are they working? Will the pilot need to use the radio to activate the airport lights?
- Check the Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs) for closed runways or airports. Look for runway or beacon lights out, nearby towers, etc.
- Choose the flight route wisely. An engine failure gives the nearby airports (and terrain) supreme importance.
- Are there shorter or obstructed fields at the destination and/or alternate airports?
Airspace considerations include:
- If the trip is over remote areas, are appropriate clothing, water, and survival gear onboard?
- If the trip includes flying over water or unpopulated areas might there be a loss of visual references?
- Will there be any airspace or temporary flight restrictions (TFRs) along the route of flight?
Night flying requires special consideration: