Poor judgment chain. A series of mistakes that may lead to an accident or incident. Two basic principles generally associated with the creation of a poor judgment chain are: (1) one bad decision often leads to another; and (2) as a string of bad decisions grows, it reduces the number of subsequent alternatives for continued safe flight. Aeronautical decision-making is intended to break the poor judgment chain before it can cause an accident or incident.

Practical Test Standards (PTS). An FAA published list of standards which must be met for the issuance of a particular pilot certificate or rating. FAA inspectors and designated pilot examiners use these standards when conducting pilot practical tests and flight instructors should use the PTS while preparing applicants for practical tests.

Preparation. The first step of the teaching process, which consists of determining the scope of the lesson, the objectives, and the goals to be attained. This portion also includes making certain all necessary supplies are on hand. When using the telling-and-doing technique of flight instruction, this step is accomplished prior to the flight lesson.

Presentation. The second step of the teaching process, which consists of delivering information or demonstrating the skills that make up the lesson. The delivery could be by either the lecture method or demonstration-performance method. In the telling-and-doing technique of flight instruction, this is the segment in which the instructor both talks about and performs the procedure.

Pretest. A test used to determine whether a learner has the necessary qualifications to begin a course of study. Also used to determine the level of knowledge a learner has in relation to the material that will be presented in the course.

Primacy. A principle of learning in which the first experience of something often creates a strong, almost unshakable impression. The importance to an instructor is that the first time something is demonstrated, it must be shown correctly since that experience is the one most likely to be remembered by the learner.

Problem-based learning. Lessons in such a way as to confront learners with problems that are encountered in real life which force them to reach real-world solutions.

Psychomotor domain. A grouping of levels of learning associated with physical skill levels which range from perception through set, guided response, mechanism, complex overt response, and adaptation to origination.

PTS. See Practical Test Standards.

Readiness. A principle of learning where the eagerness and single-mindedness of a person toward learning affect the outcome of the learning experience.

Receiver. In communication, the listener, reader, or learner who takes in a message containing information from a source, processes it, reacts with understanding, and changes behavior in accordance with the message.

Recency. Principle of learning stating that things learned recently are remembered better than things learned some time ago. As time passes, less is remembered. Instructors use this principle when summarizing the important points at the end of a lecture in order for learners to better remember them.

Relay question. Used in response to a learner’s question, the question is redirected to another individual.

Reliability. The degree to which test results are consistent with repeated measurements.

Repression. Theory of forgetting proposing that a person is more likely to forget information which is unpleasant or produces anxiety.

Response. Possible answer to a multiple choice test item. The correct response is often called the keyed response, and incorrect responses are called distractors.

Reverse question. Used in response to a learner’s question. Rather than give a direct answer to the learner’s query, the instructor returns the question to the same individual to provide the answer.

Review and evaluation. The fourth and last step in the teaching process, which consists of a review of all material and an evaluation of the learners. In the telling-and-doing technique of flight instruction, this step consists of the instructor evaluating the performance while the learner performs the required procedure.

Rhetorical question. Generally, a question asked for a purpose other than to obtain the information the question asks. For this handbook’s purpose, a question asked to stimulate group thought. Normally answered by the instructor, it is more commonly used in lecturing rather than in guided discussions.