A true AOA indicating system detects the local AOA of the aircraft and displays the information on a flight deck indicator. It also may be designed to furnish reference information to other systems on high-performance aircraft. The sensing mechanism and transmitter are usually located on the forward side of the fuselage. It typically contains a heating element to ensure ice-free operation. Signals are sent from the sensor to the flight deck or computer(s) as required. An AOA indicator may be calibrated in actual angle degrees, arbitrary units, percentage of lift used, symbols, or even fast/slow. [Figure 10-63]

There are two main types of AOA sensors in common use. Both detect the angular difference between the relative wind and the fuselage, which is used as a reference plane. One uses a vane, known as an alpha vane, externally mounted to the outside of the fuselage. It is free to rotate in the wind. As the AOA changes, air flowing over the vane changes its angle. The other uses two slots in a probe that extends out of the side of the fuselage into the airflow. The slots lead to different sides of movable paddles in a chamber of the unit just inside the fuselage skin. As the AOA varies, the air pressure ported by each of the slots changes and the paddles rotate to neutralize the pressures. The shaft upon which the paddles rotate connects to a potentiometer wiper contact that is part of the unit. The same is true of the shaft of the alpha vane. The changing resistance of the potentiometer is used in a balanced bridge circuit to signal a motor in the indicator to move the pointer proportional to the AOA. [Figures 10-64 and 10-65]

Modern aircraft AOA sensor units send output signals to the ADC. There, the AOA data is used to create an AOA indication, usually on the primary flight display. AOA information can also be integrated with flap and slat position information to better determine the point of stall. Additionally, AOA sensors of the type described are subject to position error since airflow around the alpha vane and slotted probe changes somewhat with airspeed and aircraft attitude. The errors are small but can be corrected in the ADC.

To incorporate a warning of an impending stall, many AOA systems signal a stick shaker motor that literally shakes the control column to warn the pilot as the aircraft approaches a stall condition. Electrical switches are actuated in the AOA indicator at various preset AOA to activate the motor that drives an unbalanced weighted ring, causing the column to shake. Some systems include a stick pusher actuator that pushes the control yoke forward, lowering the nose of the aircraft when the critical AOA is approached. Regardless of the many existing variations for warning of an impending stall, the AOA system triggers all stall warnings in high performance aircraft.

The temperature of numerous items must be known for an aircraft to be operated properly. Engine oil, carburetor mixture, inlet air, free air, engine cylinder heads, heater ducts, and exhaust gas temperature of turbine engines are all items requiring temperature monitoring. Many other temperatures must also be known. Different types of thermometers are used to collect and present temperature information.

The physical characteristics of most materials change when exposed to changes in temperature. The changes are consistent, such as the expansion or contraction of solids, liquids, and gases. The coefficient of expansion of different materials varies and it is unique to each material. Most everyone is familiar with the liquid mercury thermometer. As the temperature of the mercury increases, it expands up a narrow passage that has a graduated scale upon it to read the temperature associated with that expansion. The mercury thermometer has no application in aviation.

A bimetallic thermometer is very useful in aviation. The temperature sensing element of a bimetallic thermometer is made of two dissimilar metals strips bonded together. Each metal expands and contracts at a different rate when temperature changes. One end of the bimetallic strip is fixed, the other end is coiled. A pointer is attached to the coiled end which is set in the instrument housing. When the bimetallic strip is heated, the two metals expand. Since their expansion rates differ and they are attached to each other, the effect is that the coiled end tries to uncoil as the one metal expands faster than the other. This moves the pointer across the dial face of the instrument. When the temperature drops, the metals contract at different rates, which tends to tighten the coil and move the pointer in the opposite direction.

Direct reading bimetallic temperature gauges are often used in light aircraft to measure free air temperature or outside air temperature (OAT). In this application, a collecting probe protrudes through the windshield of the aircraft to be exposed to the atmospheric air. The coiled end of the bimetallic strip in the instrument head is just inside the windshield where it can be read by the pilot. [Figures 10-66 and 10-67] A bourdon tube is also used as a direct reading non-electric temperature gauge in simple, light aircraft. By calibrating the dial face of a bourdon tube gauge with a temperature scale, it can indicate temperature. The basis for operation is the consistent expansion of the vapor produced by a volatile liquid in an enclosed area. This vapor pressure changes directly with temperature. By filling a sensing bulb with such a volatile liquid and connecting it to a bourdon tube, the tube causes an indication of the rising and falling vapor pressure due to temperature change. Calibration of the dial face in degrees Fahrenheit or Celsius, rather than psi, provides a temperature reading. In this type of gauge, the sensing bulb is placed in the area needing to have temperature measured. A long capillary tube connects the bulb to the bourdon tube in the instrument housing. The narrow diameter of the capillary tube ensures that the volatile liquid is lightweight and stays primarily in the sensor bulb. Oil temperature is sometimes measured this way.

The use of electricity in measuring temperature is very common in aviation. The following measuring and indication systems can be found on many types of aircraft. Certain temperature ranges are more suitably measured by one or another type of system.