Chapter 3
Identifying Hazards & Associated Risks
Aircraft Hazards
“A” hazards can be classified in terms of both performance and equipage.
Performance
Aircraft performance hazards may include:
- Fuel and Range–As previously described, fuel issues continue to be a leading cause of general aviation accidents. Planning a flight to the aircraft’s maximum range magnifies this “A” hazard. Inaccurate calculations, changing conditions, or the aircraft’s failure to achieve “book” speeds and fuel consumption can lead to an incident or accident.
- Takeoff and Landing Performance– Takeoffs and landings become more hazardous when the calculated performance approaches the available runway length.
- Altitude Performance–Operating to or from high altitude airports or cruising at high altitudes may result in a lack of performance. In some cases, this lack of performance may not allow for a safe departure. In situations where a climb could avoid a weather or terrain hazard, the lack of performance might contribute to an incident or accident.
- Payload–Does an aircraft have the capability to carry the passengers, baggage, cargo, and fuel for a planned flight? In addition, operating near maximum takeoff weight reduces climb performance.
- Weight and Balance–Pilots who do not check center of gravity limits may experience difficulty trimming or controlling the aircraft, which could lead to a loss of control in-flight.
Equipage
The avionics and other equipment installed in an aircraft affect both utility and the ease with which a pilot can identify hazards. Equipment considerations include:
- Redundancy–Could equipment failure affect the type of flight contemplated? For example, on a day VFR flight in Class E airspace, having only a single navigation/communication radio is not a major concern. However, for a flight in IMC, having one radio could be considered an “A” hazard. Instrument failure is also a concern in IMC or at night, and backup systems could prevent an accident.
- Autopilot–Operating an aircraft in IMC without an autopilot increases pilot workload. A pilot flying an aircraft in these conditions might consider aircraft without an autopilot an “A” hazard.
- Inoperative Equipment–Inoperative equipment triggers an “A” hazard. For example, an inoperative landing light may make night operation more hazardous, even though a landing light is not required for Part 91 operations when not for hire. A pilot should consider the effect of inoperative equipment in relation to expected flight conditions.
Environmental Hazards
The environment or “V” hazard encompasses weather, terrain, airports, airspace, time of day, and other factors.
Weather
Of all the environmental hazards, weather is the most variable. However, improvements in aviation weather forecasts and improvements in technology make it easier to identify weather hazards.
- Thunderstorms and Convective Activity–Thunderstorms and their associated weather represent a severe hazard to all aviation activities. Severe turbulence, hail, and other phenomena can create the potential for loss of control and may result in structural failure of the aircraft.
- Icing–Icing conditions constitute a hazard, and in-flight ice accretion has resulted in numerous loss of control accidents. Frost, ice, or snow adhering to the aircraft on the ground, if not removed, can also be a hazard.
- Low Ceilings and Visibility–At times, conditions below minimums can extend beyond the range of an IFR flight. Continued VFR flight into IMC continues to cause accidents.
- Turbulence and Winds–Severe turbulence aloft, although not common, can result in loss of control and may lead to aircraft structural failure. Surface winds also constitute a hazard. For example, a crosswind that exceeds an aircraft’s demonstrated maximum crosswind component or the pilot’s ability may result in loss of control on the ground (LOC-G).
Terrain
Terrain and surface features are a significant hazard to all aircraft. In extreme cold or high pressure, height above ground and obstacles may be less than indicated. Pilots following instrument approach procedures have also been involved in CFIT accidents.
- Mountains, Hills, and Elevated Terrain–Mountainous terrain affects departure, en route, and arrival operations. Numerous airports in the western United States require the use of special procedures.
- Density Altitude–The combination of high temperature and high elevation affects aircraft performance. High density altitude is a “V” hazard that affects takeoffs, climbs, and landings.
- Over-water Operation–Takeoff at night over a large body of water can create a “black hole” effect and require the pilot to immediately shift to control by instruments. Operating over water may not provide a suitable surface for an emergency landing.
Facilities
The departure and arrival facilities pilots use contain various hazards, and these can be aggravated by other environmental factors.
- Airports–Runway dimensions may not be sufficient such that a takeoff or landing can be performed safely under the given conditions.
- Runway Contamination–Wet or snow-covered runways are an environmental hazard. Some airplane flight manuals (AFM) provide little or no guidance on how to modify takeoff and landing distances for contaminated runways.
- Heliports–The aircraft rotor diameter may exceed the space available.
- Seaplane Bases–Conditions that allow for landing may not be sufficient for takeoff. Obstructions may exist below the water and could be affected by tides. Rough water or glassy water conditions may exist.
- Approach Aids and Lighting–A facility without working approach aids and lighting for a given set of operating conditions is a “V” hazard.